Magic and the Early Tarot
11. Alchemy
Occult writers have often implied that the Hermetic Art, i.e., alchemy, is one of the forbidden secret arts that were coded into the Tarot symbols. The argument can be made that alchemical imagery shares with Tarot the memory arts and image magic. And like the Tarot, alchemical works contain a great variety of seemingly disconnected images. However, the alchemical imagery used in these arguments dates from the 16th and later centuries. Alchemical imagery may have exerted an influence on the later evolution of the Tarot but is unlikely to have been a direct influence on the original Tarot designs.
At the opposite end of the spectrum are interpreters who dismiss any influence of alchemy since the Hermetic works were almost completely unknown in the West until Ficini translated the Corpus Hermeticum. The translation occurred too late to have influenced the original Tarot designs.
The historical evidence lies somewhere in the middle. First, one must make clear what exactly is meant by "Hermeticism". Fragments of works, such as the Asclepius, were discussed by Augustine and were widely available throughout the middle ages (Walker 1954). However, this Hermetic literature contained presentations of Neoplatonic philosophy and had little or no connection to alchemy or magic (Hunink 1996). The only relevance of this literature is that it presents the Neoplatonism that underlay most of medieval magic.
Fragmentary references to alchemy are made throughout the early middle ages, but little explicit information was available (Kieckhefer 1989). Intellectual interest in alchemy really expanded with the translation of Arabic documents in the 12th century (Faivre 1995). The earliest documents to become available appear to be the Book of Morienus (1144, attributed to Hermes) and the Kiranides obtained from Constantinople ~1168 (Thorndike 1923). These works dealt explicitly with transmutation and magic.
Between these two works and about 1300, a number of additional alchemical works appeared. These include the Picatrix probably translated from the Arabic in the 13th century (Thorndike 1923). The author claims that the Picatrix contacts information from 224 older books. There is also a work entitled "On the Six Principles of Things" (Thorndike 1923). Another Hermetic text, "The Secrets of the Philosophers" (Friedman 1998) promises to reveal great secrets, but mostly contains simple tricks. By the early 13th century, it is clear from his writings that William of Auvergne was well acquainted with a number of works attributed to Hermes (Thorndike 1923).
Many of the alchemical authors in the 13th century used pseudonyms attributing their work to past authorities. It is not always clear whether these works depend directly on Arabic translations or represent original European contributions. The list includes treatises attributed to "Rosinus"(i.e., Zosimos), "Alfidius", "Senior", "Gratian the Alchemist", "Rodianus", and "Bonaventura" (Thorndike 1934).
What does seem clear is that after 1300 the Arabic influence ceased. Indeed, alchemical writing in the east appears to have stopped completely. Beginning in the 14th century the Latin works are all derived from earlier translations and from original insights developed in Europe (Thorndike 1934). These new works include a number of treatises attributed to Hermes: "The Book of Hermes", "A Treatise of Mercury to his disciple Mirnessindus", "Secrets of Hermes the philosopher, inventor of metals", and "Treatise on the Fountain of Youth" (Thorndike 1923). Cecco d'Ascoli (early 14th century) cites another treatise by Hermes: "De speculum et luce" (Thorndike 1923).
In addition to the works attributed to Hermes, there were a number of authors who wrote on alchemy: Petrus Bonus ("Precious New Pearl" ~1330), William Sedacerius (~1370), Vemaldua, Benvenuto of Imola (d 1391), John Bombelen ("Star of Alchemy" ~1384), John Tecenensis, John of Vienna ("Mirror of the Elements"), John Dastin, Peter of Zelence ("Of the occult things of nature"), Nicolaus Comes ("Mirror of Alchemy"), and Ortolanus (commentary on Hermes' Emerald Tablet). We also have the anonymous "Phoenix" (1399) addressed to the King of Aragon. (Thorndike 1934).
During the period prior to the 15th century, a strange affiliation developed between the friars and alchemy. A number of works were attributed (probably falsely) to Franciscans such as Osbert de Publeto, John of Apulea, Paul of Taranto, and Roger Bacon (Thorndike 1934). Elias, one of Francis' original companions, was deposed as general of the order and accused of alchemy. It is not clear that the accusation was justified but treatises do exist that were attributed to him. It is clear that other Franciscans, such as John of Rupescissa, did author texts on alchemy. Among the Dominicans, Duns Scotus quotes alchemists as authoritative but this material was officially condemned. In 1323 a general chapter of the Dominicans pronounced excommunication on any friars practicing alchemy and they were told to burn their books. But it is interesting to note that the number of texts continued to increase following the condemnation (Thorndike 1934).
As we enter the 15th century and the development of the Tarot, the occult sciences, including Alchemy, were well known and frequently cited (Shumaker 1972). The cited works are primarily collections of earlier works and only a few minor authors emerge during this period (Thorndike 1934). It was only in the 16th century that the profusion of original alchemical works reappears.
The relative lack of openly active alchemists during the period when the Tarot originally developed prompts one to ask if the lacuna was due to suppression by the Church. The Franciscans and Dominicans certainly resisted the practice of Alchemy among their own members, but does this reflect the general attitude of the Church?
As we have seen with other aspects of magic, the Church did not adopt a definitive stance. John of Rupescissa was imprisoned on several occasions. However, it seems clear that he was condemned for his radical Spiritual Franciscan writings rather than his alchemical texts. Simply stated, the Pope tended to react negatively when he was named as the Antichrist!
There certainly were Christian writers who felt that producing gold and extending life were unsupported by scriptures and appealed to the basest human instincts. They suspected that alchemy was just a ruse of the devil. But other writers defended alchemy as a form of natural magic. During the 14th century legal opinions on alchemy were developed by two canon lawyers: Oldrado and John Andrea (Thorndike 1934). They held that producing "false gold" was punishable as fraud. But if the alchemist produced true gold then he was a benefit to mankind and no more to be condemned than a miner who discovers a new source of the precious metal. Henry of Hesse (1325-1397) accepted the possibility of transmutation due to natural causes. Transmutation was simply another of the wonders that God had placed into creation to be discovered by the exercise of man's reason.
Like other forms of natural magic, alchemy was introduced into the medical curriculum and gained considerable legitimacy thereby. Gentile da Foligno (~1345) developed a cure using "potable gold" (Thorndike 1934). At the end of the 14th century, Thomas of Bologna, surgeon to Charles V and VI, was enthusiastic in his praise of alchemical medicine. The physician should study and experiment to produce the philosopher's stone to effect cures. He regarded his medicine of gold and mercury as the miraculous gift of Christ and the virgin (Thorndike 1934). Alchemical medicine was still held in high regard in 15th century Italy and Antonio Guaineri lectured on the subject at the college of medicine in Pavia (Thorndike 1934).
In general, the writers considered the highly developed art of alchemy as an adjunct to religion, not its substitute or adversary (Heninger 1974). If one's child were sick one would seek both medicine and offer prayers. There was no conflict in following both paths.
