Magic and the Early Tarot
13. Magic in the 15th Century
As we enter the century in which the Tarot was invented, we find that the occult sciences are well known and widely discussed (Shumaker 1972). Astrology, alchemy, and witchcraft were available to an increasingly literate public (Kieckhefer 1989). Under the protection of powerful lords, even black magic was practiced. Divination was widely practiced and authors discuss geomancy, hydromancy, pyromancy, and chiromancy. Divination was considered ignorant and inadvisable rather than evil. Opinions on astrology vacillate and depend on whether an author felt that divination infringes on free will.
Natural magic, in forms such as image magic and astrological medicine, continued to be discussed. The Augustinian, William Becchius (1433-1470) wrote against the "superstitions" prevalent in his time including scrolls, divination, astrology, and magical images (Thorndike 1934). At the same time, Giorgio Anselmi (active 1423-1440), a professor of medicine, wrote favorably on astrology, magic, music (Thorndike 1934). Raphael of Pornasio, the inquisitor at Genoa (1430-1450) saw no necessary conflict between theology and natural magic (Thorndike 1934). Franciscus Florentinus, theologian and dean at Florence in 1441, defended the idea that incantations are licit if they are useful for a cure. He believed in divinely implanted virtues of gems and the occult virtues of natural objects. Nicolas of Cusa discussed alchemy, divination, and occult virtues. He also discussed lot casting using Psalms and sibylline books but doesn't think divination by such means useful (Thorndike 1934). The Neoplatonist Marsilio Ficino, defended natural magic when used to cure.
In many discussions of the Church's attitudes toward magic in general and playing cards in particular, Bernardino's sermons in Sienna are cited as evidence of condemnation. Bernardino would work the crowd into a frenzy of repentance during which they would throw frivolous objects, such as playing cards, into a bonfire. What is seldom discussed is that Bernardino himself was a radical. He saw the devil and black magic everywhere and was obsessive on the issue. Outside of his immediate audience, he appears to have had little impact and was largely ignored. Official trials for witchcraft actually declined during the period of his preaching (Paton 1992). Indeed, the Augustinian, Andrea Biglia, became a vocal critic of Bernardino. Bernardino was even tried for heresy, though he was acquitted (Paton 1992). Even with his radical hatred of black magic, Bernardino, like many in the 15th century, approved of doctors using astrological magic to administer medicines and believed in divination by astrology.
There is a sense in which the Christian culture seemed to arrive at a sort of consensus on magic in the 15th century. Natural magic is usually defended as long as it did not involve demons and was used for good purposes. Black magic continues to be studied and practiced but is consistently condemned by the Church. Indeed, the Church began to take a more aggressive role in fighting black magic. The aggression took the form of associating black magic with heresy (Ankarloo and Clark 2002). Beginning in the 14th and continuing into the 15th century, books on necromancy were more and more cited in prosecutions (Kieckhefer 1997). Such prosecutions for heresy had more dire consequences for an individual than titular condemnations of magic in general.
The attitudes seemed clear on what was condemned, what was approved, and what was debatable. But the modern interpreter must be very cautious to remember the distinctions and criteria used in the 15th century. A good example is provided by Pico della Mirandola, the Neoplatonist and Christian Cabalist. He had a penchant for occult literature such as Orphic hymns, Chaldean oracles, and cabala. He held that God announces the future to men to read in dreams, portents, birds, intestines, spirits, and sibyls. He held that words and utterances have efficacy in magic but only if they are in Hebrew. As a candidate for the master's degree at Paris, he had defended the thesis that the study of the magic arts aids the salvation of the faithful (Thorndike 1934).
How did the Church respond to these radical magical concepts? Pico arrived in Rome and publicly announced that he was prepared to defend 900 theses. Examiners condemned 13 of them as heretical. But only one of the 13 dealt with magic: "No science gives more certitude of the divinity of Christ than magic and cabala". And the objection wasn't to magic, the objection was to the assertion that something other than theology was a more certain science. After the smoke cleared, Pope Alexander VI absolved him of any suspicion of heresy and ordered the inquisition not to trouble him (Thorndike 1934). Clearly there was no knee-jerk reaction causing the Church to condemn magic in the 15th century.
What seems clear is that the Church in the 15th century did not condemn all of magic as we would use the word. Astrology and image magic were an accepted part of medicine. White magic was defended by some and disparaged by others. General conditions favoring plague or other catastrophe could be predicted by astrology. Dream interpretation was often defended and other forms of divination were considered superstitious but not aggressively persecuted.
The attitude of 15th century Italy toward magic is important to understanding the origins of the Tarot. The occult tradition maintains that Tarot was invented as a tool for divination. This true purpose was kept secret by disguising the Tarot as a game. The disguise was necessary to prevent persecution by the Church.
But the Church didn't persecute diviners! If the true purpose was disguised, it was one of the great disguises of all time. The disguise was so successful that even the greatest Magi of the times, such as Pico della Mirandola and Agrippa, didn't recognize it. The Tarot was either invented in the court of Ferrara or Milan or else it was early adopted by the aristocrats. The nobility had no fear of persecution. They protected heretics and reputedly practiced black magic in defiance of the Church. When the Inquisitors came to Milan, the Duke just lifted the drawbridge and waited for them to get hungry and go home! So fear of persecution is not a viable explanation for why a culture, immersed in magic, never mentioned Tarot as a magical tool.
